What is timbuktu known for

City in Tombouctou Region, Mali

For attention to detail uses, see Timbuktu (disambiguation).

City comport yourself Tombouctou Region, Mali

Timbuktu (TIM-buk-TOO; French: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu; Tuareg: ⵜⵏⵀⵗⵜ, romanized: Tin Bukt) is plug ancient city in Mali, idle 20 kilometres (12 miles) northbound of the Niger River.

Market is the capital of greatness Tombouctou Region, one of influence eight administrative regions of Mali, having a population of 32,460 in the 2018 census.

Archaeological evidence suggests prehistoric settlements hold the region, predating the city's Islamic scholarly and trade pre-eminence in the medieval period.

Metropolis began as a seasonal camp and became permanent early bind the 12th century. After unadorned shift in trading routes, optional extra after the visit by Mansa Musa around 1325, Timbuktu flourished, due to its strategic redo, from the trade in spiciness, gold, and ivory. It inchmeal expanded as an important Islamic city on the Saharan position route and attracted many scholars and traders before it became part of the Mali Command early in the 14th c In the first half chuck out the 15th century, the African people took control for shipshape and bristol fashion short period, until the stretchy Songhai Empire absorbed it sophisticated 1468.

A Moroccan army foiled the Songhai in 1591 extremity made Timbuktu their capital. Class invaders established a new determination class, the Arma, who name 1612 became virtually independent have a high regard for Morocco. In its golden detonation, the town's Islamic scholars spreadsheet extensive trade network supported take in important book trade.

Together pick up again the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, that established Timbuktu as a lettered centre in Africa. Notable long-established writers, such as Shabeni ray Leo Africanus, wrote about ethics city. These stories fuelled hypothesis in Europe, where the city's reputation shifted from being well-to-do to mysterious.

The city's blonde age as a major wakefulness and cultural centre of integrity Mali Empire was followed make wet a long period of incline. Different tribes governed until goodness French took over Mali flat 1893, in a regime ramble lasted until the country became the Republic of Mali update 1960.

In recent history, Metropolis faced threats from extremist aggregations leading to the destruction in this area cultural sites; efforts by shut up shop and international communities have respect to preserve its heritage.

Ethics city's population has declined kind a result of the modern issues.

Toponymy

Over the centuries, leadership spelling of Timbuktu has diverse a great deal: from Tenbuch on the Catalan Atlas (1375), to traveller Antonio Malfante's Thambet, used in a letter good taste wrote in 1447 and likewise adopted by Alvise Cadamosto now his Voyages of Cadamosto, count up Heinrich Barth's Timbúktu and Timbu'ktu.

French spelling often appears ordinary international reference as 'Tombouctou'. Ethics German spelling 'Timbuktu' and spoil variant 'Timbucktu' have passed walkout English and the former has become widely used in modern years. Major English-language works plot employed the spelling 'Timbuctoo', impressive this is considered the equitable English form by scholars; 'Timbuctou' and 'Timbuctu' are sometimes moved as well.

The French carry on to use the spelling 'Tombouctou', as they have for mention a century; variants include 'Temboctou' (used by explorer René Caillié) and 'Tombouktou', but they apprehend seldom seen. Variant spellings idle for other places as ok, such as Jenne (Djenné) crucial Segu (Ségou).^[3] As well on account of its spelling, Timbuktu's toponymy assignment still open to discussion.^[a] Executive least four possible origins round the name of Timbuktu be endowed with been described:

• Songhay origin: both Leo Africanus and Heinrich Writer believed the name was divergent from two Songhay words:^[4] Human Africanus writes the Kingdom regard Tombuto was named after keen town of the same title, founded in 1213 or 1214 by Mansa Sulayman.^[5] The locution itself consisted of two parts: tin (wall) and butu (Wall of Butu).

  Africanus did grizzle demand explain the meaning of that Butu.^[4] Heinrich Barth wrote: "The town was probably so cryed, because it was built elementary in a hollow or alcove in the sand-hills. Tùmbutu strategic hole or womb in rectitude Songhay language: if it were a Temáshight (Tamashek) word, tight-fisted would be written Timbuktu.

  Representation name is generally interpreted offspring Europeans as well of Buktu (also same word in Iranian is bâkhtàr باختر = to what place the sun sets, West), on the other hand tin has nothing to action with well."

• Berber origin: Malian scorer Sekene Cissoko proposes a winter etymology: the Tuareg founders past its best the city gave it spruce up Berber name, a word at the side of of two parts: tin, nobleness feminine form of in (place of) and bouctou, a diminutive dune.

  Hence, Timbuktu would malicious "place covered by small dunes".^[7]

• Abd al-Sadi offers a third account in his 17th-century Tarikh al-Sudan: "The Tuareg made it clean depot for their belongings squeeze provisions, and it grew end a crossroads for travelers cheerful and going. Looking after their belongings was a slave bride of theirs called Timbuktu, which in their language means [the one having a] 'lump'.

  Grandeur blessed spot where she encamped was named after her."

• The Sculptor OrientalistRené Basset forwarded another theory: the name derives from rectitude Zenaga root b-k-t, meaning "to be distant" or "hidden", nearby the feminine possessive particle tin. The meaning "hidden" could look on to the city's location preparation a slight hollow.

The validity invoke these theories depends on class identity of the original founders of the city: as newly as 2000, archaeological research has not found remains dating cause the collapse of the 11th/12th century within representation limits of the modern blurb given the difficulty of excavating through metres of sand ditch have buried the remains capsize the past centuries.

Without concord, the etymology of Timbuktu clay unclear.

Prehistory

Like other important Archaic West African towns such introduce Djenné (Jenné-Jeno), Gao, and Dia, Iron Age settlements have antique discovered near Timbuktu that antedate the traditional foundation date shambles the town. Although the heap of thick layers of spunk has thwarted archaeological excavations wrench the town itself, some racket the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards try out the surface.

A survey sustaining the area by Susan be proof against Roderick McIntosh in 1984 predetermined several Iron Age sites all along the el-Ahmar, an ancient notch system that passes a sporadic kilometers to the east cut into the modern town.^[13]

An Iron Confederacy tell complex located nine kilometres (5+1⁄2 mi) southeast of the City near the Wadi el-Ahmar was excavated between 2008 and 2010 by archaeologists from Yale Establishment and the Mission Culturelle offputting Tombouctou.

The results suggest wind the site was first in use during the 5th century BC, thrived throughout the second fifty per cent of the 1st millennium Dash and eventually collapsed sometime extensive the late 10th or originally 11th-century AD.

History

Main article: History depose Timbuktu

Timbuktu has acquired a status be known in the Western world monkey an exotic, mysterious place, nevertheless the city was once spick well known trade center paramount an academic hotspot of grandeur medieval world.

Timbuktu reached corruption golden period under the Mali Empire in the 13th stomach 14th centuries. Distinguished Malian Mansa Mūsā brought great fame focus on the city by recruiting scholars from throughout the Islamic universe to travel there, establishing state publicly as a center of knowledge. The scholars focused not sole on Islamic studies, but too history, rhetoric, law, science, suggest, most notably, medicine.

Mansa Mūsā also introduced Timbuktu, and picture Mali Empire in general, compare with the rest of the chivalric world through his Hajj, whereas his time in Mecca would soon inspire Arab travelers fasten visit North Africa. Europeans, nevertheless, would not reach the rebound until much later, due acknowledge the difficult and lengthy voyage, thus garnering the city par aura of mystery.

Timbuktu essentially gained its wealth from district gold and salt mining, train in addition to the trans-Saharan slaveling trade. Gold was a warmly valued commodity in the Sea region and salt was governing popular south of the expertise, though arguably the biggest concentration Timbuktu had was its mark. The city is situated cardinal miles from the Niger Brook, making for good agricultural confusion.

Its position near the blockade of the Sahara Desert through it a hub for trans-Saharan trade routes. Timbuktu also data as a midpoint between position regions of North, West, point of view Central Africa. Because of that, Timbuktu developed into a folk melting pot.

The Mali Command reached a steady decline cry the mid-1400s, giving rise compute the Songhai Empire.

However, nobleness city of Timbuktu entered unembellished brief period of rule erior to the Tuaregs before it hide to the Songhai people. In the face major shifts in power, City generally flourished until the Moroccans invaded the Songhai Empire make the addition of 1590 and began to invade Timbuktu in 1591, after decency Battle of Tondibi.

In 1593, many of the city's scholars were executed or exiled be disloyalty to the new rulers. This, along with a turn down in trade as a conclude of increased competition from fresh available trans-Atlantic sailing routes, caused the city to lose cast down prominence. In the 1890s Metropolis was formally incorporated into greatness French colony of Sudan, uncultivated under French control until distinction colony became the independent bank account of Mali in 1960.

Today, the population of Timbuktu has substantially decreased since its putative peak of 100,000 people call the medieval period. The metropolis has suffered from great shortage for several years now, relying on government funding as uncomplicated means of survival. ^[16]

Siege break into Timbuktu

See also: Siege of Timbuktu

On 8 August 2023, Timbuktu was brought under a total closure by Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM),^[17] exacerbating poverty, station leading to food shortages.

33,000 fled the city and warmth surrounding areas and 1,000 conspiracy fled to Mauritania since goodness start of the siege.^[18] Illustriousness siege began after the extraction of MINUSMA, the United Humanity mission to Mali during picture Mali War.^[19]

Geography

Timbuktu is located ditch the southern edge of picture Sahara15 km (9+1⁄2 mi) north of picture main channel of the Jet Niger.

The town is circumscribed by sand dunes and birth streets are covered in valour. The port of Kabara wreckage 8 km (5 mi) to the southbound of the town and psychoanalysis connected to an arm clench the river by a 3 km (2 mi) canal. The canal difficult become heavily silted but break through 2007 it was dredged tempt part of a Libyan financed project.^[20]

The annual flood of honourableness Niger River is a respect of the heavy rainfall confine the headwaters of the River and Bani rivers in Fowl and northern Ivory Coast.

Representation rainfall in these areas peaks in August but the floodwater takes time to pass take issue with the river system and clean up the Inner Niger Delta. Disrespect Koulikoro, 60 km (37 mi) downstream running away Bamako, the flood peaks drop September,^[21] while in Timbuktu glory flood lasts longer and habitually reaches a maximum at character end of December.^[22]

The area overwhelmed by the river was in the old days more extensive and in life with high rainfall, floodwater reached the western outskirts of City itself.

A small navigable stream to the west of influence town is shown on interpretation maps published by Heinrich Writer in 1857 and Félix Dubois in 1896. Between 1917 distinguished 1921, during the colonial stint, the French used slave occupation to dig a narrow canalize linking Timbuktu with Kabara.^[26] Anxious the following decades this conveyor became silted and filled keep an eye on sand, but in 2007 rendering canal was re-excavated as order of the dredging project to such a degree accord that now when the Run Niger floods, Timbuktu is once more also connected to Kabara.^[20][27] The African government has promised to native land problems with the design annotation the canal as it presently lacks footbridges and the undue, unstable banks make access come near the water difficult.^[28]

Kabara can train as a port only have as a feature December and January when illustriousness river is in full flow.

When the water levels restrain lower boats dock at Korioumé, which is linked to City by 18 km (11 mi) of smooth road.

Climate

Timbuktu features a thwack desert climate (BWh) according interruption the Köppen Climate Classification. Loftiness weather is extremely hot prep added to dry throughout much of authority year, with most of honourableness city's rainfall occurring between June and September due to rank influence of the Intertropical Collection Zone (ITCZ).

The degree bring into play diurnal temperature variation is predominant in the dry season ahead of the wet season. Average everyday maximum temperatures in the hottest months of the year – April, May and June – exceed 40 °C (104 °F). Lowest temperatures occur during the mildest months of the year – Dec, January and February. Average most temperatures do not drop further down 30 °C (86 °F).

These winter months are characterized by a blight, dusty trade wind blowing foreigner the Saharan Tibesti Region s to the Gulf of Poultry. Picking up dust particles keep an eye on their way, these winds radical visibility in what has antiquated dubbed the "Harmattan Haze."^[29] As well, when the dust settles explain the city, sand builds hire and desertification looms.^[30]

Economy

Salt trade

The wealth and very existence faultless Timbuktu depended on its tilt as the southern terminus locate an important trans-Saharan trade route; nowadays, the only goods roam are routinely transported across glory desert are slabs of outcrop salt brought from the Taoudenni mining centre in the vital Sahara 664 km (413 mi) north cherished Timbuktu.

Until the second fraction of the 20th century accumulate of the slabs were ecstatic by large salt caravans think of azalai, one leaving Timbuktu subtract early November and the alcove in late March.

The caravans hint several thousand camels took troika weeks each way, transporting nourishment to the miners and incessant with each camel loaded clatter four or five 30 kg (66 lb) slabs of salt.

The rock-salt transport was largely controlled tough desert nomads of the Arabic-speaking Berabich (or Barabish) tribe.^[35] Tho' there are no roads, primacy slabs of salt are moment usually transported from Taoudenni do without truck.^[36] From Timbuktu the over-salted is transported by boat tote up other towns in Mali.

Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Timbuktu's population grew immensely unfair to an influx of Bono, Tuaregs, Fulanis, and Songhais hunting trade, security, or to glance at. By 1300, the population enhanced to 10,000 and continued escalating until it reached about 50,000 in the 1500s.^[37][38]

Agriculture

There is meagre rainfall in the Timbuktu section for purely rain-fed agriculture pivotal crops are therefore irrigated usability water from the River River.

The main agricultural crop stick to rice. African floating rice (Oryza glaberrima) has traditionally been fit in regions near the creek that are inundated during decency annual flood. Seed is sow at the beginning of high-mindedness rainy season (June–July) so put off when the flood water arrives plants are already 30 pact 40 cm (12 to 16 in) sight height.^[39]

The plants grow up connection three metres (10 feet) girder height as the water flush rises.

The rice is harvested by canoe in December. Prestige procedure is very precarious limit the yields are low however the method has the unfasten that little capital investment crack required. A successful crop depends critically on the amount dominant timing of the rain pin down the wet season and significance height of the flood.

Give confidence a limited extent the appearance of the flood water stem be controlled by the translation of small mud dikes ramble become submerged as the bottled water rises.

Although floating rice appreciation still cultivated in the City Cercle, most of the rash is now grown in triad relatively large irrigated areas put off lie to the south confess the town: Daye (392 ha), Koriomé (550 ha) and Hamadja (623 ha).^[40] h is pumped from the surge using ten large Archimedes' screws which were first installed back the 1990s.

The irrigated areas are run as cooperatives momentous approximately 2,100 families cultivating tiny plots.^[41] Nearly all the playwright produced is consumed by class families themselves. The yields unwanted items still relatively low and primacy farmers are being encouraged follow a line of investigation change their agricultural practices.^[42]

Tourism

Most tourists visit Timbuktu between November impressive February when the air weather ambience is lower.

In the Eighties, accommodation for tourists was damaged by Hendrina Khan Hotel^[43] last two other small hotels: Breakfast Bouctou and Hotel Azalaï.^[44] Revolve the following decades the visitor numbers increased so that infant 2006 there were seven little hotels and guest houses.^[40] Illustriousness town benefited by the returns from the CFA 5000 tourist tax,^[40] the sale of handicrafts explode employment of local guides.

Attacks

Starting in 2008, al-Qaeda in high-mindedness Islamic Maghreb began kidnapping assemblages of tourists in the Sahel region.^[45] In January 2009, link tourists were kidnapped near loftiness Mali–Niger border after attending precise cultural festival at Anderamboukané.^[46] Tending of these tourists was afterwards murdered.^[47] As a result illustrate this and various other incidents a number of states with France,^[48] Britain^[49] and the US,^[50] began advising their citizens brave avoid travelling far from Bamako.

The number of tourists affliction Timbuktu dropped precipitously from lark around 6000 in 2009 to one 492 in the first join months of 2011.^[44]

Because of say publicly security concerns, the Malian make moved the 2010 Festival bonding agent the Desert from Essakane withstand the outskirts of Timbuktu.^[51][52] Featureless November 2011, gunmen attacked tourists staying at a hotel behave Timbuktu, killing one of them and kidnapping three others.^[53][54] That was the first terrorist fact in Timbuktu itself.

On 1 April 2012, one day tail the capture of Gao, Metropolis was captured from the African military by the Tuareg rebels of the MNLA and Ansar Dine.^[55] Five days later, class MNLA declared the region sovereign of Mali as the inspection of Azawad.^[56] The declared bureaucratic entity was not recognized stop any regional nations or goodness international community and it fallen three months later on 12 July.^[57]

On 28 January 2013, Sculptor and Malian government troops began retaking Timbuktu from the Islamist rebels.^[58] The force of 1,000 French troops with 200 African soldiers retook Timbuktu without excellent fight.

The Islamist groups abstruse already fled north a erratic days earlier, having set zeal to the Ahmed Baba League, which housed many important manuscripts. The building housing the Ahmed Baba Institute was funded surpass South Africa, and held 30,000 manuscripts. BBC World Service broadcast news reported on 29 Jan 2013 that approximately 28,000 suggest the manuscripts in the Guild had been removed to aegis from the premises before illustriousness attack by the Islamist bands, and that the whereabouts slap about 2,000 manuscripts remained unknown.^[59] It was intended to enter a resource for Islamic research.^[60]

On 30 March 2013, jihadist rebels infiltrated Timbuktu nine days beforehand a suicide bombing on deft Malian army checkpoint at nobleness international airport, killing a gladiator.

Fighting lasted until 1 Apr, when French warplanes helped African ground forces chase the fallow rebels out of the know-how center.

Early accounts in integrity West

Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous funds helped prompt European exploration endorse the west coast of Continent. Among the most famous abcss of Timbuktu are those carryon Leo Africanus and Shabeni.

Leo Africanus

Perhaps most famous among class accounts written about Timbuktu in your right mind that by Leo Africanus, aborigine El Hasan ben Muhammed el- Wazzan-ez-Zayyati in Granada in 1485. His family was among representation thousands of Muslims expelled brush aside King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel after their reconquest of Espana in 1492.

They settled outing Morocco, where he studied huddle together Fes and accompanied his poet on diplomatic missions throughout Northbound Africa. During these travels, settle down visited Timbuktu. As a juvenile man he was captured unreceptive pirates and presented as make illegal exceptionally learned slave to Bishop of rome Leo X, who freed him, baptized him under the nickname "Johannis Leo de Medici", near commissioned him to write, barred enclosure Italian, a detailed survey prime Africa.

His accounts provided governing of what Europeans knew dance the continent for the later several centuries. Describing Timbuktu during the time that the Songhai Empire was explore its height, the English print run of his book includes influence description:

The rich king wheedle Tombuto hath many plates significant sceptres of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds.

... Closure hath always 3000 horsemen ... (and) a great store a choice of doctors, judges, priests, and burden learned men, that are plentifully maintained at the king's worth and charges.

— Leo Africanus, Descrittione dell' Africa^[5]

According to Leo Africanus, in were abundant supplies of near produced grain, cattle, milk stand for butter, though there were neither gardens nor orchards surrounding ethics city.^[62] In another passage fervent to describing the wealth reduce speed both the environment and glory king, Africanus touches upon leadership rarity of one of Timbuktu's trade commodities: salt.

The denizens are very rich, especially rank strangers who have settled instructions the country [..] But saline is in very short overhaul because it is carried helter-skelter from Tegaza, some 500 miles [800 km] from Timbuktu. I precedent to be in this throw away at a time when nifty load of salt sold broadsheet eighty ducats.

The king has a rich treasure of dosh and gold ingots.

— Leo Africanus, Descrittione dell' Africa in Paul Brians' Reading About the World, Textbook 2^[62]

These descriptions and passages resembling caught the attention of Continent explorers.

Africanus also described interpretation more mundane aspects of righteousness city, such as the "cottages built of chalk, and subterranean clandestin with thatch" – although these went largely unheeded.

Shabeni

Roughly 250 years after Someone Africanus' visit to Timbuktu, honesty city had seen many rulers.

The end of the Eighteenth century saw the grip personage the Moroccan rulers on picture city wane, resulting in dexterous period of unstable government timorous quickly changing tribes. During say publicly rule of one of those tribes, the Hausa, a 14-year-old child named Shabeni (or Shabeeny) from Tetuan on the boreal coast of Morocco accompanied coronate father on a visit seal Timbuktu.

Shabeni stayed in Timbuktu to about three years before moving allure a major city called Housa^[b] several days' journey to glory southeast.

Two years later, unquestionable returned to Timbuktu to stick up for there for another seven life-span – one of a residents that was, even centuries care its peak and excluding slaves, double the size of leadership 21st-century town.

By the in advance Shabeni was 27, he was an established merchant in sovereign hometown of Tetuan.

He undemanding a two-year pilgrimage to Riyadh and thus became a wanderer, Asseed El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny. Returning from a trade voyage to Hamburg, he was captured by a ship manned by Englishmen but sailing get it wrong a Russian flag, whose conductor claimed that his Imperial paramour (Catherine the Great) was "at war with all Muselmen" (see Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)).

He opinion the ship he had anachronistic sailing in were brought side Ostend in Belgium in Dec 1789 but the British plenipotentiary managed to get him leading the ship released. He dinner suit off again in the exact same ship, but the captain, who claimed to be afraid guide his ship being captured go back over the same ground, set him ashore in Dover.

In England his story was recorded. Shabeeni gave an memo of the size of illustriousness city in the second section of the 18th century. Cultivate an earlier passage, he averred an environment that was defined by forest, as opposed give a positive response the modern arid surroundings.

Arts and culture

The mosques

Situated on representation northern edge of the River Delta, Timbuktu is at nobleness crossroads of the Saharan employment routes and the River River.

Founded in 1100 by rectitude Tuareg, this cultural centre boasts significant architectural landmarks, including yoke great mosques: Djinguere Ber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya.^[67]

The Djinguere Shindig Mosque, built in 1328 spoils the patronage of Mansa Musa, the wealthy ruler of interpretation Mali Empire, served as copperplate testament to the city's interest during this golden age.

Mansa Musa's legendary pilgrimage to Riyadh, during which he distributed cavernous amounts of gold, contributed suck up to the construction of the shrine and cemented Timbuktu's reputation monkey a centre of Islamic flamboyance and learning. Over the centuries, the Djinguere Ber mosque has undergone various renovations and extensions, reflecting the changing architectural styles and religious practices of position region.

The Sankore Mosque, constitute between 1325 and 1463, non-natural a central role in Timbuktu's intellectual and educational landscape. In the same way the city flourished as neat centre of Islamic learning, influence Sankore Mosque became a okay centre of learning, attracting scholars and students from across greatness Muslim world.

Its libraries housed thousands of manuscripts on subjects ranging from theology to uranology, contributing to Timbuktu's reputation reorganization a centre of intellectual barter and cultural diversity.

The Sidi Yahya mosque, founded in 1440 by the revered marabout Sheik al-Mukhtar Hamallah, held both inexperienced and mystical significance for authority people of Timbuktu.

According longing local legend, the mosque forthcoming the arrival of Sidi Yahya al-Tadlissi, a saint whose arresting would sanctify the site. In the way that Sidi Yahya claimed the safety forty years later, it became a focal point for ecclesiastical devotion and pilgrimage. Over disgust, the mosque underwent several renovations and refurbishments, reflecting the cool religious and cultural landscape make stronger Timbuktu.

Cultural events

The best-known native event is the Festival workplace Désert.^[68] When the Tuareg insurrection ended in 1996 under interpretation Konaré administration, 3,000 weapons were burned in a ceremony called the Flame of Peace annoyance 29 March 2007 – on hand commemorate the ceremony, a tombstone was built.

The Festival administrative centre Désert, to celebrate the calmness treaty, was held every Jan in the desert, 75 km wean away from the city until 2010.^[68]

The week-long festival of Mawloud is reserved every January, and celebrates interpretation birthday of Muhammed; the city's "most cherished manuscripts" are scan publicly, and are a inside part of this celebration.

Soak up was originally a Shi'ite feast from Persia and arriving break down Timbuktu around 1600. The "most joyful occasion on Timbuktu's calendar", it combines "rituals of Mysticism Islam with celebrating Timbuktu's welltodo literary traditions". It is smart "period of feasting, singing, significant dancing ... It culminated with brush evening gathering of thousands signal people in the large blonde square in front of dignity Sankor é Mosque and spiffy tidy up public reading of some defer to the city's most treasured manuscripts."

Annually, during the winter, Timbuktu has hosted the Living Together commemoration since 2015.^[72][73]

World Heritage Site

During cause dejection twelfth session, in December 1988, the World Heritage Committee (WHC) selected parts of Timbuktu's conventional centre for inscription on professor World Heritage list.^[74] The grouping was based on three criteria:^[75]

• Criterion II: Timbuktu's holy places were vital to early Islamization regulate Africa.
• Criterion IV: Timbuktu's mosques extravaganza a cultural and scholarly Blonde Age during the Songhai Empire.
• Criterion V: The construction of primacy mosques, still mostly original, shows the use of traditional assets techniques.

An earlier nomination in 1979 failed the following year brand it lacked proper demarcation:^[75] depiction Malian government included the urban of Timbuktu as a global in the wish for inclusion.^[76] Close to a decade next, three mosques and 16 mausoleums or cemeteries were selected stay away from the Old Town for Sphere Heritage status: with this contigency came the call for guard of the buildings' conditions, distinctive exclusion of new construction scowl near the sites and gearing up against the encroaching sand.

Shortly afterwards, the monuments were located on the List of Replica Heritage in Danger by picture Malian government, as by influence selection committee at the crux of nomination.^[74] The first spell on the Danger List lasted from 1990 until 2005, just as a range of measures inclusive of restoration work and the composition of an inventory warranted "its removal from the Danger List".^[77] In 2008 the WHC be situated the protected area under accrued scrutiny dubbed "reinforced monitoring", unadulterated measure made possible in 2007, as the impact of projected construction work was unclear.

Exceptional attention was given to interpretation build of a cultural centre.^[78]

During a session in June 2009, UNESCO decided to cease wellfitting increased monitoring program as undress felt sufficient progress had archaic made to address the elementary concerns.^[79] Following the takeover check Timbuktu by MNLA and rendering Islamist group Ansar Dine, not in use was returned to the Close down of World Heritage in Possibility in 2012.^[80]

Many of the happening conservation efforts are undertaken stomachturning "traditional actors" in the citizens.

Some of their efforts cover managing and restoring the customary mosques in the city.^[81]

Attacks exceed radical Islamic groups

Further information: Islamist destruction of Timbuktu heritage sites

In May 2012, Ansar Dine blasted a shrine in the city^[82] and in June 2012, wrench the aftermath of the Skirmish of Gao and Timbuktu, assail shrines, including the mausoleum several Sidi Mahmoud, were destroyed in the way that attacked with shovels and pickaxes by members of the be consistent with group.^[80] An Ansar Dine promoter said that all shrines hem in the city, including the 13 remaining World Heritage sites, would be destroyed because they bother them to be examples commandeer idolatry, a sin in Islam.^[80][83] These acts have been alleged as crimes against humanity ride war crimes.^[84] After the indulge of the tombs, UNESCO conceived a special fund to protection Mali's World Heritage Sites, vowing to carry out reconstruction person in charge rehabilitation projects once the asylum situation allows.^[85]

Education

Centre of learning

Timbuktu was a globe centre of Islamic learning elude the 13th to the Ordinal century, especially under the Mali Empire and Askia Mohammad I's rule.

The Malian government pointer NGOs have been working be proof against catalogue and restore the call in of this scholarly legacy: Timbuktu's manuscripts.^[86]

Timbuktu's rapid economic growth disturb the 13th and 14th centuries drew many scholars from close by Walata (today in Mauritania),^[87] important up to the city's aureate age in the 15th streak 16th centuries that proved bleak ground for scholarship of religions, arts and sciences.

To interpretation people of Timbuktu, literacy perch books were symbols of income, power, and blessings and righteousness acquisition of books became a-ok primary concern for scholars.^[88] Type active trade in books betwixt Timbuktu and other parts bad deal the Islamic world and empress Askia Mohammed's strong support cross to the writing of tens of manuscripts.

Knowledge was gathered delete a manner similar to decency early, informal European Medieval academy model.^[87] Lecturing was presented encapsulate a range of informal institutions called madrasahs.^[90] Nowadays known hoot the University of Timbuktu, twosome madrasahs facilitated 25,000 students: Djinguereber, Sidi Yahya and Sankore.^[91]

These institutions were explicitly religious, as indisposed to the more secular curricula of modern European universities careful more similar to the mediaeval Europe model.

However, where universities in the European sense under way as associations of students tell off teachers, West-African education was support by families or lineages, interchange the Aqit and Bunu al-Qadi al-Hajj families being two behoove the most prominent in Metropolis – these families also facilitated students in set-aside rooms expose their housings.

Although the reason of Islamic law and spoil teaching were brought to City from North Africa with depiction spread of Islam, Western Person scholarship developed: Ahmad Baba sociable Massufi is regarded as goodness city's greatest scholar.^[93]

Timbuktu served quickwitted this process as a put out centre of scholars and learning.

Its reliance on trade designed intensive movement of scholars in the middle of the city and its wide network of trade partners. Weigh down 1468–1469 though, many scholars maintain equilibrium for Walata when Sunni Ali's Songhay Empire absorbed Timbuktu.^[87] Subsequently, in the 1591 Moroccan foray of Timbuktu, scholars had touch flee once more, or lineaments imprisonment or murder.^[94]

This system disagree with education survived until the lodge 19th century, while the Ordinal century saw the institution put itinerant Quranic school as keen form of universal education, turn scholars would travel throughout depiction region with their students, craving for food part of distinction day.^[86] Islamic education came secondary to pressure after the French position, droughts in the 1970s abide 1980s and by Mali's courteous war in the early 1990s.^[86]

Manuscripts and libraries

Main article: Timbuktu Manuscripts

Hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were collected in Timbuktu over rendering course of centuries: some were written in the town strike, others – including exclusive copies of the Quran for well-to-do families – imported through description lively booktrade.

Hidden in cellars or buried, hid between justness mosque's mud walls and safeguarded by their patrons, many accuse these manuscripts survived the city's decline. They now form high-mindedness collection of several libraries locked in Timbuktu, holding up to 700,000 manuscripts in 2003.^[95] They prolong the Ahmed Baba Institute, Heart of hearts Haidara Library, Fondo Kati, Al-Wangari Library, Mohamed Tahar Library, Maigala Library, Boularaf Collection, and Athletic Kounti Collections.

These libraries object the largest among up disdain 60 private or public libraries that are estimated to surface in Timbuktu today, although intensely comprise little more than wonderful row of books on a-ok shelf or a bookchest.^[96] Prep below these circumstances, the manuscripts sheer vulnerable to damage and pilferage, as well as long label climate damage, despite Timbuktu's dull climate.

Two Timbuktu Manuscripts Projects funded by independent universities own aimed to preserve them.

In late January 2013 it was reported that rebel forces abandoned many of the manuscripts beforehand leaving the city.^[97][98] "On Weekday morning, 25 January 2013, xv jihadis entered the restoration post conservation rooms on the attempt floor of the Ahmed Baba Institute in Sankoré ...

The joe six-pack swept 4,202 manuscripts off work tables and shelves, and snatch and rub out them into the tiled courtyard ... They doused the manuscripts affluent gasoline ... and tossed in on the rocks lit match. The brittle pages and their dry leather covers ... were consumed by the inferno." However, there was no dangerous destruction of any library do an impression of collection as most of depiction manuscripts were safely hidden away.^{[100][101][102][unreliable source?][103]} 90% of these manuscripts were saved by the professional Adbel Kader Haidara^[104][105] and interpretation population organized around the Organization "Sauvegarde et valorisation des manuscrits pour la défense de unfriendliness culture islamique" (SAVAMA-DCI).^[106][107] Some 350,000 manuscripts were transported to keeping, and 300,000 of them were still in Bamako in 2022.^[108][109]

During the occupation by Islamic covert, the city's citizens embarked association a drive to save probity "best written accounts of Human History".

Interviewed by Time periodical, the local residents claimed pass on have safeguarded the three numbers thousand manuscripts for generations. Patronize of these documents are unmoving in the safe-keeping of interpretation local residents, who are averse to give them over get rid of the government-run Ahmed Baba School housed in a modern digitalisation building built by the Southbound African government in 2009.

Glory institute houses only 10% clamour the manuscripts.^[110] It was consequent confirmed by Jean-Michel Djian lock The New Yorker that "the great majority of the manuscripts, about fifty thousand, are absolutely housed in the thirty-two kinfolk libraries of the 'City returns 333 Saints'".

He added, "Those are to this day protected." He also added that concession to the massive efforts center one individual, two hundred chiliad other manuscripts were successfully beside oneself to safety.^[111] This effort was organized by Abdel Kader Haidara, then director of Mamma Haidara Library, using his own prove.

Haidara purchased metal footlockers briefing which up to 300 manuscripts could be securely stored. Basically 2,500 of these lockers were distributed to safe houses circuit the city. Many were posterior moved to Dreazen.^[112]

Language

Although Bambara legal action the lingua franca of Mali, today the large majority obey Timbuktu's inhabitants speaks Koyra Chiini, a Songhay language that too functions as the lingua franca.

Before the 1990–1994 Tuareg revolt, both Hassaniya Arabic and Tamashek were represented by 10% command to an 80% dominance subtract the Koyra Chiini language. Garner Tamashek spoken by both Ikelan and ethnic Tuaregs, its as to declined with the expulsion be worthwhile for many Tuaregs following the revolt, increasing the dominance of Koyra Chiini.

Arabic, introduced together with Monotheism during the 11th century, has mainly been the language confront scholars and religion, comparable prove Latin in Western Christianity.^[114] Even supposing Bambara is spoken by class most numerous ethnic group lessening Mali, the Bambara people, deafening is mainly confined to goodness south of the country.

Identify an improving infrastructure granting City access to larger cities outer shell Mali's South, use of Bambara was increasing in the propensity at least until Azawad independence.

Infrastructure

With no railroads in Mali neglect for the Dakar-Niger Railway prime to Koulikoro, access to City is by road, boat administrator, since 1961, aircraft.^[115] With elevated water levels in the River from August to December, Compagnie Malienne de Navigation (COMANAV) voyager ferries operate a leg amidst Koulikoro and downstream Gao matrimony a roughly weekly basis.

Too requiring high water are pinasses (large motorized pirogues), either leased or public, that travel deal with and down the river.^[116]

Both ferries and pinasses arrive at Korioumé, Timbuktu's port, which is attached to the city centre unused an 18 km (11 mi) paved over running through Kabara.

In 2007, access to Timbuktu's traditional nickname, Kabara, was restored by calligraphic Libyan funded project that dredged the 3 km (2 mi) silted canalize connecting Kabara to an leg of the Niger River. COMANAV ferries and pinasses are moment able to reach the name when the river is score full flood.^[20][117]

Timbuktu is poorly allied to the Malian road netting with only dirt roads interest the neighbouring towns.

Although birth Niger River can be across by ferry at Korioumé, distinction roads south of the beck are no better. However, out new paved road is misstep construction between Niono and Metropolis running to the north engage in the Inland Niger Delta. Depiction 565 km (351 mi) road will permit through Nampala, Léré, Niafunké, Tonka, Diré and Goundam.^[118][119] The in readiness 81 km (50 mi) section between Niono and the small village sustaining Goma Coura was financed induce the Millennium Challenge Corporation.^[120] That new section will service rectitude Alatona irrigation system development method the Office du Niger.^[121] Representation 484 km (301 mi) section between Metropolis Coura and Timbuktu is instruct financed by the European Happening Fund.^[118]

Timbuktu Airport was served outdo Air Mali, hosting flights deal and from Bamako, Gao mount Mopti.