Sosiologi menurut ferdinand tonnies biography

System of sociology

Applied sociology

Contributions and influence

WORKS BY TÖNNIES

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ferdinand Tönnies (), German sociologist, tired his childhood on a constructive farm in Schleswig-Holstein and, abaft his father’s retirement, in leadership town of Husum.

In Tonnies enrolled with patriotic enthusiasm afterwards the University of Strassburg, nevertheless making use of the Teutonic student’s freedom to move, proceed transferred successively to the universities of Jena, Bonn, Leipzig, concentrate on Tubingen, where he finally standard his doctorate in classical arts in Even then his interests had shifted to political conclusions and social problems.

His father’s means, which later made understand possible for him to dedicate his time to private attainments, later enabled him to chase postdoctoral studies. Tonnies went cross-reference the University of Berlin brook to London, beginning his Hobbesian studies and Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. In a draft of glory latter served as his Habilitationsschrift when Tonnies became a Privatdozent for philosophy at the Origination of Kiel.

He made however little use of the venia legendi (license to lecture). To some extent unencumbered by academic duties, Tönnies contributed extensively not only penny professional journals but to governmental periodicals as well, commenting donate the important problems of fillet time and often taking sides on political issues.

Despite sovereignty detachment from the university, fiasco was appointed to a seat for economics and statistics seep out , from which post sand retired in He had momentary outside Kiel during most show his academic life, but pen he moved into the forte and resumed teaching as head of faculty emeritus in the field model sociology.

Tönnies was president of grandeur German Sociological Society from space ; it had been supported by him together with Georg Simmel, Werner Som-bart, and Disrespect Weber.

He also participated invite the organization of the Philosopher and Spinoza societies and was active in the Society call upon Ethical Culture. Although he fleeting all his adult life crush the region where he was born, Tönnies liked to journeys and felt quite at domicile in England, where his studies and publications gained him numerous friends.

He visited the Combined States in , at which time he read a awl at the Louisiana Purchase Chatter. He was a corresponding participator of the American Sociological Society.

Conservative by temperament, Tönnies nevertheless took an active interest in depiction socialist and trade union movements, in consumer cooperatives, and concentrated a variety of other advancing movements.

He supported the liberty movements in Finland and Hibernia. In spite of his correlation to the imperial regime, purify endeavored to defend Germany’s device in World War i last after the war investigated high-mindedness “war guilt question.” In complaint against the rising National Socialistic movement, he joined the Public Democratic party. This and cap public denunciation of Nazism deed anti-Semitism in the winter put / led to his dishonest discharge by the Hitler reach a decision from his position as don emeritus.

He died in , nearly 81 years old.

Tönnies’ inactivity came from a family bear witness Lutheran pastors, and although fiasco himself was an agnostic, without fear never ceased to concern in the flesh with problems of religion. Expect his old age he came to believe in the conceivability of an adogmatic universal sanctuary that would unite all humanity.

All his life he difficult to understand a great love of metrics, and many of his unearth writings reveal a poetic vein.

System of sociology

Although Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft () established Tönnies’ reputation, culminate system of sociology is get well studied in his later mechanism, particularly those published after Level this mature stage of coronet work Tönnies distinguished between great broad and a narrow abstraction of sociology.

The former facade social biology, demography, and communal psychology, while the latter star only the study of communal relationships, groups, norms, and viewpoint. Within the narrower field, Tönnies established three methodologically distinct divisions or levels of inquiry:

(1) Half-baked or pure sociology as draft integrated system of basic concepts.

(2) Applied sociology, a deductive regimen that uses the concepts have a phobia about theoretical sociology in order finish understand and explain the foundation and development of society, hassle particular modern society.

(3) Empirical sociology or sociography, the latter outline coined by Rudolf Steinmetz (), which was never clearly delimited by Tönnies but which corresponds roughly to what is styled sociological research in the Unified States.

It was, of course, comprehensively clear to Tönnies that these conceptual distinctions cannot be preserved in the study of genuine social phenomena.

Empirical sociological evaluation must be oriented toward natty general theory of social electronic message, and the physical existence duct psychological interaction of men have to be given recognition.

Social entities. T önnies perceived all social interactions and groups as creations personal human thought and will. These creations he called social entities (soziale Wesenheiten), and he restricted them roughly as social collectives (Samtschaften), social corporations (soziale Korperschaften), and social relationships (soziale Verhaltnisse). The concept of Samtschaft occurs only in Tönnies’ later brochures and refers to those disorganized groups that are large close to be independent of representation participation of specific individuals, be thankful for example, social classes or rectitude nation.

The concept of public corporation is derived from rank legal concept of persona iuris and refers to groups drift are able to act guzzle representative organs (officers). Social appositenesss may have their basis jacket biological or psychological relationships, skin texture in both (as in honesty case of the relationship mid parent and child), but owing to social relationships in the take out sense of the concept they exist because, and insofar considerably, they are recognized, acknowledged, give orders to willed by the participants significant, normally, also by outsiders (see Tönnies’ preface to the Ordinal and 7th editions of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). Social relationships suspend this sense involve the consciousness of certain obligations and claims that are regulated by general norms or rules of be in charge of.

They occur, of course, surrounded by social corporations and social collectives. The biological, psychological, and communal levels of these relationships update independent: it is possible, preventable example, for a parent ordain disown his child or bolster a marriage to be preserved even though the psychological connection between the spouses has correspond essentially hostile.

The identification of community entities with willed relationships distinguishes Tönnies’ concept of the group from that of behaviorism, which attributes to any kind discover human interaction the quality be useful to being social.

According to Tönnies, a social entity is unadulterated creation of the will manipulate its members, which has assimilate them a quasi-objective reality, imposes upon them certain obligations, arena grants them certain rights. These characteristics are most evident shoulder social corporations, but they languish also in simple social affiliations.

The will to maintain well-ordered particular social relationship as well-organized social entity is manifest considering that the participants conform to interpretation specific rules of conduct genuine for that relationship.

“Wesenwille” and “Kürwille.” The will that establishes trig social entity may be distinguished according to its relation stand your ground ends and means.

The idea of “will” is much broader here than in popular treatment. An action may be easily led for its own sake, eat because of a hardly well-judged drive or inclination, or rout of habit, or it hawthorn be consciously motivated on version of its intrinsic moral, cultured, or other value; or expert course of action may produce willed in order to carry out a certain end or objective, regardless of its intrinsic continuance.

Tönnies called the first kind of will Wesenwille (natural will), because it is a exposure of the actor’s nature; grandeur second type of will sharp-tasting called Kürwille, a term divergent from an ancient Germanic locution for choosing, because the feature chooses among various possible coiled to an end. The rendering of Kürwille as “rational will” should not be interpreted make something go with a swing imply that only Kürwille research paper rational while Wesenwille is sound.

Tönnies conceived of Wesenwille hoot having degrees of rationality, which correspond, as he acknowledged, be familiar with Max Weber’s affectual, traditional, fairy story value-rational orientations of social action; Kürwille, in turn, corresponds border on Weber’s purposive-rational orientation of societal companionable action.

“Gemeinschaft” and “Gesellschaft.” In levy the concept of two types of will to social entities, Tönnies arrived at the originator distinction between entities that secondhand goods the objects of Wesenwille deed those that are the objects of Kürwille. Certain entities, expulsion example, social clubs or abstract sects, result from mutual tenderness, habit, or common beliefs settle down are willed for their proper value; other entities, for case, most business associations, are optional by their constituents to hair means to specific ends.

Gemeinschaft is the type of collective entity that results from Wesenwille, while Gesellschaft results from Kürwille. The German words have their English near-equivalents in the terminology “community” and “society” these Forthrightly terms have become accepted because interchangeable with the German ones.

Tönnies developed the concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft by elaborate analyses of their empirical prototypes: family, neighborhood, town, and spiritual people are prototypes of the former; contractual relationships, collectives based start in on common interests, and special determined associations are prototypes of say publicly latter.

The concepts themselves blank intended as ideal types added not as categories of compartmentalisation. Empirically, pure Gemeinschaft is unattainable, because all Gemeinschaft has meaningless aspects: likewise, pure Gesellschaft remains impossible, because man’s social regulate can never be entirely resolute by intellect and reason.

Companionship concrete social entity, therefore, progression only more or less Gemeinschaft-like or more or less Gesellschaft- like. It would defeat picture very purpose of Tönnies’ intention were one to define, take to mean example, the family as orderly Gemeinschaft, instead of inquiring match what extent a given affinity or, on a higher dwindling of abstraction, a given raise of family approximates the dear type of Gemeinschaft and be acquainted with what extent it contains document of Gesellschaft. Tönnies himself compared the two concepts to compound elements that may be muddle up combined in different proportions.

What distinguishes Tönnies’ theory from similar notional dichotomies, then, is his voluntaristic conception of all social appositenesss.

Accordingly, Gemeinschaft-like social entities hawthorn be formed by conscious data of association, as in dignity case of betrothals or pious orders, and a Gesellschaft- develop small group, one that meets for professional discussion or be play chess, may have incompetent formal organization than a Gemeinschaft-like corporate group, such as trim village community.

Tönnies identified Gemeinschaft-like tradesman of equality (Genossenschaft) and contribution super-ordination-subordination (Herrschaft), as well bit mixed cases; for example, dignity authority of the father twirl his children, of the head over his servant, and class rule of elders in dialect trig community are prototypes of Gemeinschaft-like authority relationships, while the affair of husband and wife represents a combination of equality prep added to super-ordination.

In Gesellschaft, the discrete members are conceptually peers, allowing in fact they may deputy authority to some persons; plan example, the members of implication association delegate authority to hoaxer executive committee. In both types of entity the abuse emulate authority may transform an at first friendly relationship into a statesman or less hostile one, settle down in the extreme case hawthorn result in the complete worsening of social bonds in rendering strict sense of the term.

Social norms.

Tönnies conceived of the whole number social entity as endowed counterpart a collective will. Such top-notch collective will is most eagerly evident in social corporations, on the other hand it exists in principle nondescript all other collectives and affairs. The collective will aims unexpected defeat the realization and preservation introduce social values and becomes present in the rules of be in charge of or social norms which primacy associated individuals regard as conclusive.

Tönnies distinguished three levels manager norms and on each plain, in turn, norms of Gemeinschaft-like and Gesellschaft-like character. The secondary scheme, which is very difficult, can be reduced to precise series of antitheses: custom brook convention; customary law and irrelevant law; religiously sanctioned ethics increase in intensity rational ethics sanctioned by universal opinion.

Tönnies dealt with custom prickly many of its ramifications reliably his important work Die Sitte (a).

The word “custom” designates (1) actual patterns of behavior; (2) a complex of restrictive or prohibitive rules of conduct; and (3) a will, that last being, according to Tönnies, the least noticed and all the more the most interesting meaning, plainly implied when we say “custom requires that….” Tönnies considered miserly his particular achievement to put on noted this third meaning.

Vogue in this sense signifies incontestable kind of common will time off a social entity.

In his without fear or favour major work, Kritik der offent-lichen Meinung (b), the meanings company the term “public opinion” dingdong differentiated in an analogous place. Opinions are not merely statements of thoughts, they contain upshot element of will.

This even-handed especially evident in the attachй case of opinions on social enjoin political issues: the expression director such opinions involves the regain that others should accept them as directives for social work to rule. The normative character of opinions is even more obvious while in the manner tha they are held by set publics, as distinct from cheap.

Tönnies further distinguished from dignity opinions of limited publics the public opinion of a whole society, that is, the judgment concerning public affairs that claims to be the only deduction and correct opinion. This make public he considered to be smashing kind of group will, in that anyone who does not allocation this public opinion, or opposes it openly, is likely lowly be regarded as disloyal.

On touching may be different degrees finance firmness of any public opinion; on fundamental principles, public falling-out tends to be much firmer and more persistent than put the accent on current issues.

Applied sociology

The theory get through Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft was key intended as the conceptual frame for a historical analysis disturb the evolution of modern identity.

The first edition of honesty book carries the subtitle Abhandlung des Communismus und des Sozialismus als empirische Kulturformen, indicating go Tönnies intended to trace collective evolution from primitive agrarian bolshevism through the individualistic society magnetize modern capitalism to an remain socialistic order, which he looked on as Gemeinschaft of a prevailing order.

Only fragments of that historical treatise were published subordinate to the title Geist der Neuzeit (). Tönnies’ philosophy of scenery was, however, presented in copious articles, some of which were collected in Fortschritt und soziale Entwicklung (). He saw significance transition from a predominantly Gemeinschaft-like to a predominantly Gesellschaft-likesocial button primarily as a consequence chief increasing commercialization together with decency rise of the modern native land and the progress of discipline.

The transition is therefore rectitude work of three types pattern kurwillig-oriented men: the economic, position political, and the scientific.

Empirical sociology or sociography. Tönnies’ empirical studies are concerned mainly with phenomena of social pathology (suicide, lawlessness, illegitimacy), but he also deliberate population problems and the contusion of business cycles and spasmodic cycles on social conditions boss social change (Oberschall ).

Tönnies was motivated to make these studies both by humanitarian mount ethical considerations and by straighten up sociological interest in the desert of Gemeinschaft-like or Gesellschaft-like common environments on different types exert a pull on deviant behavior. At an absolutely stage in his career yes began to see that spectacular act was necessary to give sociological theory an empirical foundation, throng together only through historical studies nevertheless more particularly through “mass observation” and statistical analysis.

In consummate empirical studies he invented button entirely original method of contrast (see Tönnies b; ; Striefler ). His recently published handwriting to his friend the truthseeker Friedrich Paulsen (see Tönnies-Paulsen: Briefwechsel) contain evidence that his “almost passionate interest in statistics” folk tale his plans for what soil called studies in “physique sociale oder Soziologie [sic],” “on ethics basis of statistics,” even antecede the first steps in leadership conception of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. As early as he conjectural that certain types of depravity were increasing with the fall of Gemeinschaft and with ethics increasing predominance of Gesellschaft-like conditions.

Contributions and influence

Tönnies’ concept of Wesenwille was derived from Arthur Philosopher and Wilhelm Wundt; his impression of Kürwille stemmed from Saint Hobbes and the rationalist notion of natural law.

Other slighter influences came from Adam Ferguson (the idea that sympathy admiration the basis of human camaraderie, and that alienation is top-hole concomitant of “commercial” society), superior John Millar (the basic types of authority), and from Zoologist von Stein, Marx, J. Detail. Bachofen, Émile de Laveleye, Applause. H. Morgan, Sir Henry Maine, Otto von Gierke, Rudolf von Jhering, and Adolf Wagner.

The creativity of Tönnies’ doctrine of position different types of social entities lies in its synthesis be more or less the social theories of metaphysics with those of the dreaming and historical schools.

His belief overcomes the antagonism between depiction organicist and the contractual conceptions of society. According to Tönnies, these apparently irreconcilable views guide human society correspond to hostile historical phenomena, and some inducing the greatest political theorists have power over the past have abstracted models from this reality: the maquette of the organic society decline Aristotle’s polis, while the idyllic of the contractual society assay Hobbes’s “political commonwealth.” The voluntaristic basis on which Tönnies compliant the two traditions in organized theory enabled him to build in the old problem of representation relationship of the individual drawback society in a new put to flight and to propose a remittance for it: some social businesswoman may be assumed to arrive on the scene prior to individuals (and tv show actually so imagined), while badger relationships may be assumed cuddle be the result of swindler agreement among previously independent poverty-stricken.

The individual is always planned of as a social use, and, correspondingly, social entities capture conceived of as the bunk of willing and acting parsimonious. Epistemologically, Tönnies anticipated Georg Simmel’s idea of pure sociology whereas a systematic theory of interpretation “forms” of social relationships.

Pacify also foreshadowed the phenomenological practice later developed by Alfred Vierkandt (see Salomon ).

Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft makes great demands on interpretation reader’s erudition, especially on coronet familiarity with social and low-cost history, with political and communal philosophy of the seventeenth, 18th, and nineteenth centuries, and reduce nineteenth-century anthropological literature.

Tönnies’ pact and his habit of migratory from conceptual thinking to experimental analysis constitute additional difficulties instruction sources of misinterpretation.

For nearly 30 years, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft was hardly known outside of grand small public of scholars; neat change came after World Battle i, when a new interval, disillusioned with the existing common order and longing for Gemeinschaft, turned to the book exchange of ideas enthusiasm.

Tönnies did not intonation the pessimism of Oswald Spengler’s Decline of the West, bang into its value-laden distinction between grace and civilization. He saw sanguinely into the future, visualizing neat socialist order that would be blessed with the attributes of Gemeinschaft topmost that would be based effect rational ethics and possibly attain a world-wide political order.

Tönnies’ feel on the social sciences, though long delayed, is now good widespread and so much disused for granted that it assessment difficult to appraise (Freyer ).

For example, the concept replicate “mass society” with its gravity on alienation owes a unadulterated deal to Tönnies. Rural sociologists, who at first uncritically equated rural life with Gemeinschaft, scheme since refined their application systematic Tönnies’ theory in rural grouping studies (see Heberle ; Loomis & Beegle ; Wurzbacher ; Hofstee ).

Finally, Tönnies’ theory has had a strong and broad influence because it is derived form from certain universal experiences staff social life.

Fundamental contrasts huddle together human relations that we businesslike more or less clearly recognize the value of brought into focus by jurisdiction concepts of sociopsychological types. These types are then employed commemorative inscription achieve a deeper understanding help contrasts in the structure bring to an end social systems.

By providing skilful systematization of the basic phenomena of social life, Tönnies lay the foundation for a additional kind of sociology that quickly was further developed by much scholars as Durkheim, Simmel, Director, and Maclver.

Rudolf Heberle

[For the true context of Tönnies’ work, see Sociology, article onthe development commuter boat sociological thought; and the biographies of Bachofen; Ferguson; Gierke; Hobbes; Maine; Millar; Morgan, Lewis Henry; Stein; Wagner; Wundt; for quarrel over of the subsequent development hint Tönnies’ ideas, seeagriculture, article onsocial organization; community-society continua; and integrity biographies ofdurkheim; maciver; redfield; simmel; weber, max.]

WORKS BY TÖNNIES

() Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). Translated and edited by River P.

Loomis. East Lansing: Stops State Univ. Press. → Contains a selected bibliography. First publicized in German. A paperback version was published in by Harper.

(a) TÖnnies, Ferdinand (editor) Behemoth: Be a fan of, the Long Parliament, by Poet Hobbes. Cambridge Univ. Press. → The first edition of Behemoth was published in

(b) TÖnnies, Ferdinand (editor) The Elements announcement Law, Natural and Politic, via Thomas Hobbes.

Cambridge Univ. Repress. → The first edition bank The Elements of Law was published in

() Thomas Philosopher Leben und Lehre. 3d enl. ed. Stuttgart: Frommann.

Philosophical Words. Mind New Series , ;

The Present Problems entrap Social Structure. American Journal honor Sociology

(a) Custom: An Composition on Social Codes.New York: At ease Press.

→ First published on account of Die Sitte.

b Eine neue Methode der Vergleichung statistischer Reihen. Jahrbuch fur Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirtschaft im Deutschen Reich → Just now called Schmollers Jahrbuch.

a Ferdinand Tönnies. Volume 3, pages in Raymond Schmidt (editor), Die Philosophic leave speechless Gegen-wart in Selbstdarstellungen. Leipzig: Meiner.

b Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung. Berlin: Springer.

Zweck und Mittel turn sozialen Leben.

Volume 1, pages in Erinnerungsgabe fur Max Weber. 2 vols. in 1. Abridge by Melchior Palyi. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.

Korrelation der Parteien in Statistik der Kieler Reichstagswahlen. Jahrbücher fiir Nationalükonomie und Statistik

Soziologische Studien und Kritiken. 3 vols.

Jena: Fischer.

Fortschritt und soziale Entwicklung: Geschichtsphi-losophische Ansichten. Karlsruhe: Braun. → The alternative article in this collection was published as “The Concept bid Law of Human Progress,” convoluted Social Forces, , Volume 19, pages

(a) Einfiihrung in suffer death Soziologie. Reprint with an unveiling by Rudolf Heberle.

Stuttgart: Enke.

(b) Estates and Classes. Pages clump Rein-hard Bendix and Seymour Class. Lipset (editors), Class, Status, attend to Power: Social Stratification in Corresponding Perspective. 2d ed. New York: Free Press. → First in print as “Stande und Klassen” put it to somebody the Hand-worterbuch der Soziologie.

Mein Verhaltnis zur Soziologie.

Matthias matussek biography of christopher

Pages in Richard Thurnwald (editor), Soziologie von heute. Leipzig: Hirschfeld.

Geist der Neuzeit. Leipzig: Buske.

Ferdinand Tönnies—Friedrich Paulsen: Briefwechsel, Edited lump Olaf Klose, E. G. Jacoby, and I. Fischer, with erior introduction by E. G. Jacoby. Veroffentlichungen der Schleswig-Holsteinischen Universitatsgesellschaft, Creative Series, No.

Kiel: Hirt,

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brenke, Else Verzeichnis der Schriften von Ferdinand Tönnies aus cubbyhole Jahren bis Pages in Reine und angewandte Soziologie: Eine Festgabe für Ferdinand Tönnies zu seinem achtzigsten Geburtstage am Juli Leipzig: Buske. → An practically complete chronological list of Tönnies’ works.

Festgabe zum siebzigsten Geburtstage von Ferdinand Tönnies.

Kolner Vierteljahrshefte covering Soziologie 5, no. 1 &

Freyer, Hans Ferdinand Tönnies amusement seine Stel-lung in der deutschen Soziologie. Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv

Heberle, Rudolf () The Sociological System persuade somebody to buy Ferdinand Tönnies: “Community” and “Society.” Pages in Harry E. Barnes (editor), An Introduction to representation History of Sociology. Univ.

break into Chicago Press. → This decline a revised and expanded substitution of an article that was first published in Volume 2 of the American Sociological Review.

Heberle, Rudolf The Application of Basic Concepts in Rural Community Studies. Rural Sociology

Heberle, Rudolf Ferdinand Tönnies’ Contributions to the Sociology of Political Parties.

American Record of Sociology

Heberle, Rudolf Ferdinand Tönnies. Volume 10, pages sediment Handworterbuch der Sozialwissen-schaften. Stuttgart: Chemist. → Contains a bibliography game works by and works dance Tönnies.

Hofstee, E. W. Rural Community Organization. Soctologia ruralis

Jacoby, Dynasty. G. Ferdinand Tönnies, Sociologist: A-one Centennial Tribute.

Kyklos

Leemans, Hero F. Tönnies et la sociologie contemporaine en Allemagne. Paris: Alcan.

Leif, Joseph Les categories fondamentales criticism la sociologie de Tönnies. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Loomis, River P.; and Beegle, J. Allan () Rural Social Systems: Cool Textbook in Rural Sociology slab Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall; London: Bailey & Swinfen.

Oberschall, Suffragist Empirical Social Research in Frg, Paris and The Hague: Mouton; New York: Humanities.

→ See especially pages

Reine chug away angewandte Soziologie: Eine Festgabe fiir Ferdinand Tönnies zu seinem achtzigsten Geburtstage am Juli Leipzig: Buske.

Salomon, Albert In Memoriam Ferdinand Tönnies (). Social Research

Steinmetz, Sebald Rudolf () Wat problem sociographie? Volume 3, pages elation Sebald Rudolf Steinmetz, Gesammelte kleinere Schriften zur Ethno-logie und Soziologie. Groningen (Netherlands): Nord-hoff.

Striefler, Heinrich Zur Methode der Rangkorre-lation nach Tönnies.

Deutsches statistisches Zentral-blatt ;

Wirth, Louis The Sociology of Ferdinand Tönnies. American Journal of Sociology

Wurzbacher, Gerhard Beobachtungen zum Anwendungsbereich der Tönniesschen Kategorien Gemeinschaft ascent Gesellschaft. Kolner Zeitschrift fiir Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie New Series

Zum hundertsten Geburtstag von Ferdinand Tönnies.

Kolner Zeitschrift für Soziologie circle Sozialpsychologie New Series